Buddhism

Zhanshan Temple — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

Zhanshan Temple is a Buddhist temple in Qingdao, Shandong, China. It is located on the southern side of Zhanshan (literally ‘clear’ or ‘deep mountain’), facing the sea.

It features a number of buildings, including a Buddhist scripture library and a large Yaoshi stupa.

In 2004 the temple underwent renovation.

As of April 2004, entry was priced at 5RMB, with discounts available for seniors and the disabled. During August 2004, the price was reported as 8RMB, which may be related to the renovations which were still underway.

Zendo — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

Zendo (禅堂, Chinese: Chántáng) is a Japanese term translating roughly as “meditation hall”. In Zen Buddhism, the zendo is a spiritual dojo where zazen (sitting meditation) is practiced. A full-sized Buddhist temple will typically be divided into at least one zendo as well as a hondo (本堂, literally “base hall”, sometimes translated as “Buddha hall”), which is used for ceremonial purposes, and a variety of other buildings with different functions. However, any place where people go to practice zen can be referred to as a zendo.

Zendo etiquette

The following are recommendations on zendo etiquette taken from an , along with explanations of some Japanese terms. Etiquette varies in different temples, so the following rules may or may not apply in part or in full at any given zendo:

• Enter the zendo on the left side of the entry, left foot first.
• Gassho and bow to the altar.
• Walk forward across the room past the altar and go to a seat turning corners squarely (cross in front of the altar only during kinhin).
• Gassho and bow toward the seat, greeting the people to both sides.
• The people on both sides respond to greeting.
• Turn clockwise and face front.
• Gassho and bow to those directly across room, greeting them.
• They respond with a gassho-bow in greeting.
• Sit down on the zafu.
• Turn clockwise toward the wall. (If in a Soto style zendo, Rinzai style is to sit facing in from the wall.)
• Always turn or move clockwise as viewed from above the zendo.

Zen Mountain Monastery — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

The Zen Mountain Monastery is a Zen Buddhist monastery and training center on a 250 acre forested property in the Catskill Mountains in Mount Tremper, New York. It was founded in 1980 by John Daido Loori, Roshi, and serves as the flagship of the Mountains and Rivers Order of Zen Buddhism, also founded by Daido Roshi in 1980. It combines the Rinzai and Soto Zen traditions, in both of which Daido Roshi received Dharma transmission. Besides Daido Roshi, the Zen Mountain Monastery also has two Sensei teachers, Bonnie Myotai Treace and Geoffrey Shugen Arnold, who received Dharma transmission from Daido Roshi in 1996 and 1997, respectively.

The Zen Mountain Monastery is home to several other monastics, and also hosts short-term lay students for a variety of weekend and week-long Zen training programs, focusing variously on painting, poetry, shakuhachi performance, Zen archery, and many other activities. Additionally, week long intensive meditation retreats called sesshins are held monthly. Sesshin retreats include daily talks given by a senior student or Zen teacher as well as daily face to face meeting with a Zen teacher.

Zen Centre of Ottawa — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

The White Wind Zen Community (WWZC) is a Soto Zen Buddhist association based at the Zen Centre of Ottawa (Honzan Dainen-ji) in Ottawa, Ontario, with branch centres in Wolfville, Nova Scotia and Harrow, England. The Community is led by the Venerable Anzan Hoshin roshi. It consists of both a monastic order, the Northern Mountain Order, and a large community of associate, general, and formal lay students.

The WWZC was founded in 1985 as the White Wind Zazenkai (Hakukaze Zazenkai), named after the Hakukaze-ji monastery of Anzan Hoshin roshi’s teacher, the late Ven. Yasuda Joshu Dainen Hakukaze. The association was renamed “White Wind Zen Community” in 1989. While Anzan Hoshin roshi is still in permanent residence at the Ottawa centre, he retired from public teaching in 1991 and currently teaches only monastic and formal students. Lay teaching is currently performed by his Dharma-successors, the Ven. Shikai Zuiko osho and the Ven. Jinmyo Renge osho, and by practice advisors trained by Anzan Hoshin roshi.

In addition to offering an intensive schedule of practice year-round, including sittings, sesshin and outreach of a Western Zen centre, the WWZC provides a large number of individual students outside of commuting distance of the monastery or its branches with long-distance training. The long-distance training program provides students practice interviews and daisan via e-mail, telephone, or letter, and grants students access to a library of over 2000 recorded dharma talks. The WWZC also publishes books and audio recordings through its publishing arm, Great Matter Publications.

See also

• Buddhism in Canada
• Buddhism in America

Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values (ISBN 0688002307) is the first of Robert M. Pirsig’s texts in which he explores a Metaphysics of Quality. The 1974 book describes a journey across the United States, punctuated by numerous philosophical discussions referred to as chautauquas.

In this book, Pirsig explores the meaning of the concept “quality” (a term which he capitalizes). In the sequel (Lila: An Inquiry into Morals), Pirsig expands his exploration of Quality into a complete metaphysics which he calls The Metaphysics of Quality. The Metaphysics of Quality is a philosophy, a theory about reality; it asks questions such as what is real, what is good and what is moral. As the title suggests, much of the Metaphysics of Quality has to do with a non-intellectualizing, non-conceptualizing, Zen-like direct viewing of the universe. Yet Pirsig departs from Eastern thinking by arguing that reason and logic are just as important in seeking understanding. He explains that, despite its title, “it should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice. It’s not very factual on motorcycles, either.”

Pirsig is not the first philosopher to try to bridge the gap between science and mysticism; however, with the Metaphysics of Quality he elevates the whole debate to a new level by structuring both paradigms around a single concept: value. Pirsig throws new light on issues such as mind and matter, the behavior of particles at the quantum level and the nature of consciousness. At the social level there is much to say about racial tension, celebrity cults and mental illness.

Trivia

• The title is an incongruous play on the title of an earlier, well-known (among Western Buddhists) book Zen in the Art of Archery, by Eugen Herrigel.

• According to the Guinness Book of Records Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance is the bestselling novel rejected by the greatest number of potential publishers (121).

• Legendary NBA coach Phil Jackson cites Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance as one of the major guiding forces in his life. His fond admiration for the book is the source of his nickname “The Zen Master.”

Zen — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

Zen is the Japanese name of a well known branch of Mahāyāna Buddhist schools, practiced originally in India as dhyan (ध्यान), which then came to be known in China as Ch’an (禪), and subsequently in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Zen emphasizes the role of sitting meditation (zazen) in pursuing enlightenment for the benefit of others thus emphasizing compassion. Though considered simply a practice by most of its Western practitioners, Zen is in fact nothing less than a school of Buddhism and thus a religion. It was only during the last century or so that Zen began to be viewed by Westerners as a philosophy, a way of life, work, an art form, etc. Such a view is not shared by the vast majority of Zen followers in the country of its origin.

Zen is the common name for this branch of Buddhism in Japanese as well as in English. However, in the last half of the 20th century, Zen has become an international phenomenon, with centers in many countries around the world.

Spread of Zen

Traditionally, Zen traces its roots back to Indian Buddhism and, while not an independent school of Buddhism there, takes its name from the Sanskrit term for meditation, “dhyāna” (ध्यान). This word was transliterated into Chinese as Chán (禪 / simplified 禅); “Chán” was later borrowed into Korean as Seon, Vietnamese as Thiền and into Japanese as “Zen.” (Note that Chan, Zen, Seon and Thien are just different pronunciations of the same Chinese character. Their teachings may vary in methods, but the principles claim the same origin.)

According to traditional accounts, Zen was founded in China by an Indian Buddhist monk, Bodhidharma (Daruma Daishi in Japanese, Da mo in China; Bodhidharma was the third prince of the Chola Dynasty, descended from the North Indian Cholas, which ruled the area of Kanchipuram in the South). He was the 28th in the line of transmission from the Buddha’s disciple Kasyapa. According to the Jingde Record of the Transmission of the Lamp, circa 520 CE he traveled by sea to the southern Chinese kingdom of Liang where, in a famous exchange with the Emperor Wu, he declared that good deeds done with selfish intention were useless (conferred no merit) for gaining enlightenment. He then went to a monastery near Luoyang in eastern China and, according to legend, spent nine years meditating before a cliff wall before accepting any disciples. He later passed away at Mountain Sung Shaolin Temple(嵩山少林寺), Deng Feng County, Henan Province, China (Mountain Sung, the highest and central peak of the Five Sacred Mountains, situated in Henan Province).

As a legendary culture hero Bodhidharma has also been linked to the Shaolin Temple and the subsequent spread of East Asian martial arts in the oral traditions of schools like Kung Fu and T’ai Chi Ch’uan, as well as in much popular wuxia fiction.

Later, Korean monks studying in China learned what was by then called Ch’an, and which had by then been profoundly influenced by Chinese Taoism and to a lesser degree Confucianism. After the tradition was expanded to Korea, it came to be called Seon there (sometimes misspelled as Soen in the West).

It is important to note, however, that Chan, Seon and Zen continued to develop separately in their home countries, and all maintain separate identities to this day. Although lineage lines in China, Korea, Japan and elsewhere appear to show direct descent from Bodhidharma, changes in belief and practice have inevitably appeared with the profusion of Chan/Seon/Zen.

The Japanese Rinzai Zen philosopher D.T. Suzuki maintained that a Zen satori (awakening) was the goal of the training, but that which distinguished the tradition as it developed in China, Korea, and Japan was a way of life radically different from that of Indian Buddhists. In India, the tradition of the mendicant (holy beggar, or bhikku in Pali) prevailed, but in China social circumstances led to the development of a temple and training-center system in which the abbot and the monks all performed mundane tasks. These included food gardening or farming, carpentry, architecture, housekeeping, administration, and the practice of folk medicine. Consequently, the enlightenment sought in Zen had to stand up well to the demands and potential frustrations of everyday life.

List of the first Zen Patriarchs:

1. Bodhidharma (skt. बोधिधर्म, chin. Damo 達摩, jap. Daruma だるま) * about 440 – † about 528
2. Hui-ke (慧可, jap. Daiso Eka *487) – †593
3. Seng-can (僧燦, jap. Konchi Sosan) * ? – †606
4. Dao-xin (道信, jap. Dai’i Doshin) *580 – †651
5. Hung Ren (弘忍, jap. Dai’man Konin) *601 – †674
6. Hui Neng (慧能, jap. Daikan Eno) *638 – †713

Zen in Japan

The following Zen schools still exist in Japan: Rinzai, Soto, and Obaku. Originally formulated by the eponymous Chinese master Linji (Rinzai in Japanese), the Rinzai school was introduced to Japan in 1191 by Eisai. Dogen, who studied under Eisai, would later carry the Caodong, or “Soto” Zen school to Japan from China. Ikkyu revitalized Zen in the 15th century and greatly developed the tea ceremony. Obaku was introduced in the 17th century by Ingen, a Chinese monk.

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Daiun Harada and Shunryu Suzuki, who also taught in the United States, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals with very few Zen practitioners ever actually attaining realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest’s function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals.

Some Japanese Zen sects and teachers have also been criticized for their involvement in Japanese militarism and nationalism especially during World War II. In particular an American Soto Zen priest Brian Victoria has exposed a number of instances where Buddhist teachings were used to justify acts of killing.

Zen and Buddhism

Zen is a branch of Buddhism and as such is based on and deeply rooted in the Buddha’s teachings. It is also very much the child of China and has some teaching derived from Confucianism and Taoism. The Zen branch calls itself the Buddha Heart School and traces its lineage back to the Buddha, with the Flower Sermon being the first transmission of the Dharma. It’s common for daily chanting to include the lineage of the school, reciting the names of all “dharma ancestors” and teachers that have transmitted Zen teaching.

Zen is part of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism (Northern) and some practical differences are to be found with the Theravadins (Southern). For example, Zen and other Mahayana traditions place greater emphasis on the practice of the Paramitas (Path of Perfection) and less on the Eightfold Path, although familiarity with the Eightfold Path is still required. Another difference is in sutra study; Zen and other Mahayana traditions focus on the Mahayana Canon, while the Southern schools place emphasis on Tripitaka study.

All Zen schools, Rinzai or Soto, are versed in Buddhist Doctrine and Buddhist Philosophy, including the Precepts, Four Noble Truths, Pratitya Samutpada, Three Signs of Being, Five Skandhas, Three Fires, Four Right Efforts, Five Hindrances, Ten Fetters, and the Bhavacakra (and its symbolic representation). At the same time, Zen’s emphasis on direct seeing into one’s nature keeps it lively and at the edge of the tradition.

This openness has allowed non-Buddhists to practice Zen, especially outside of Asia, and even for the curious phenomenon of an emerging Christian Zen lineage, as well as one or two lines that call themselves “nonsectarian.” With no official governing body, it’s perhaps impossible to declare any authentic lineage “heretical.” The principal safeguard is lineage and any authentic Zen school will be able to trace its line of teachers back to Japan, Korea, Vietnam or China.

Zen teachings and practices

Zen teachings often criticize textual study and the pursuit of worldly accomplishments, concentrating primarily on meditation in pursuit of an unmediated awareness of the processes of the world and the mind. Zen, however, is not exactly a quietistic doctrine: the Chinese Chan master Baizhang (720-814 CE), (Japanese: Hyakujo), left behind a famous saying which had been the guiding principle of his life, “A day without work is a day without eating.” When Baizhang was thought to be too old to work in the garden, his devotees hid his gardening tools. In response to this, the master then refused to eat, saying “No working, no living.”

These teachings are in turn deeply rooted in the Buddhist textual tradition, drawing primarily on Mahāyāna sutras composed in India and China, particularly the Platform Sutra of Huineng, the Heart Sutra, the Diamond Sutra, the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Samantamukha Parivarta, a chapter of the Lotus Sutra. The body of Zen doctrine also includes the recorded teachings of masters in the various Zen traditions. The heavy influence of the Lankavatara Sutra, in particular, has led to the formation of the “mind only” concept of Zen, in which consciousness itself is recognized as the only true reality.

Zen is not primarily an intellectual philosophy nor a solitary pursuit. Zen temples in Asia and Zen centers in the west emphasize meticulous daily practice, and hold intensive monthly meditation retreats. Practicing with others is valued as a way to avoid the traps of ego. In explaining the Zen Buddhist path to Westerners, Japanese Zen teachers have frequently pointed out, moreover, that Zen is a way of life and not solely a state of consciousness. D.T. Suzuki wrote that the aspects of this life were: a life of humility; a life of labor; a life of service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and a life of meditation. The history of Zen has also been closely connected to the development of several forms of martial arts, most notably Aiki jujutsu, Judo and especially Aikido, sometimes considered the most religious martial art, in Japan and Kung Fu in China.

Zazen

Zen sitting meditation is called zazen. Walking meditation is called kinhin. Meditation as a practice can be applied to any posture. During zazen, practitioners usually assume a lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza sitting position. A round cushion (zafu) placed on a padded mat (zabuton) is used to sit on, or a chair may be used. Rinzai practitioners traditionally use a square cushion and typically sit facing the center of the room, while Soto practitioners sit facing a wall. Awareness is directed towards one’s posture and breathing.

In Soto, shikantaza meditation (“just-sitting”) that is, a meditation with no objects, anchors, “seeds,” or content, is the primary form of practice. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found in Dogen’s Shobogenzo.

The daily time spent in zazen varies. Dogen recommends that even 5 minutes daily for householders is beneficial. The key is daily regularity, as Zen teaches that the ego will naturally resist, and the discipline of regularity is essential. Practicing Zen monks may spend 4-6 periods of zazen 30-40 minutes each during a normal day. During the monthly retreat sesshins of 1-, 3-, 5-, or 7-day duration, they may spend 9-12 periods of scheduled group zazen, and occasionally more individual zazen late at night. The zazen periods are usually interleaved with brief periods of walking meditation to relieve the legs.

Dogen’s teacher Rujing was said to spend less than 4 hours in actual sleep each night, spending the balance in zazen (see Dogen’s formative years in China by Takashi James Kodera ISBN 0710002122). However, in practice, it is not uncommon for monks to actually sleep during zazen. Some meditation researchers have theorized that Zen adepts who are able to achieve the deeper levels of samadhi in meditation are actually fulfilling the same need as REM sleep, so that when zazen time is added to actual sleep time, they are in effect still getting the normal amount of daily sleep that the brain requires. However, such ability to enter into deep samadhi during zazen is apparently fairly rare, and may not arise even after decades of meditation.

The teacher

Because the Zen tradition emphasizes direct communication over scriptural study, the role of the Zen teacher is important but not entirely crucial. Generally speaking, a Zen teacher is a person ordained in any tradition of Zen to teach the dharma, guide students of meditation and perform rituals.

A central part of all Zen sects is the notion of “Dharma transmission,” the claim of a line of authority that goes back to the Buddha. Originally this derived from the description of Zen attributed to Bodhidharma:

A special transmission outside the scriptures;

No dependence upon words and letters;

Direct pointing to the human mind;

Seeing into one’s own nature and attainment of Buddhahood.

Since at least the Middle Ages, Dharma Transmission has become a normative aspect of all Zen sects. Every Zen teacher stands within one lineage or another. Some sects, including most Japanese lines, possess formal lineage charts that are drawn up for the ceremonial practice of transmission, which document the lineage back to Shakyamuni Buddha.

Honorific titles associated with teachers typically include, in Chinese: Fashi (法師) or Chanshi (禪師); in Korean, Sunim or Seon Sa; in Japanese: Osho (priest) Roshi (old master) or Sensei (teacher); and in Vietnamese, Thay (teacher; pronounced tie). Note that many of these titles are common among Buddhist priests of all schools present in the specific cultural context. Some titles, such as the Japanese sensei, are also used beyond the Buddhist schools.

The term Zen master is often used to refer to important teachers, especially ancient and medieval ones. However, there is no specific criterion by which one can be called a Zen master. The term is less common in reference to modern teachers, because they are generally reluctant to proclaim themselves “masters.” At the same time these teachers willingly acknowledge their lineage connections, naming who authorized them as teachers.

In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868), some came to question the lineage system and its legitimacy. The Zen master Dokuan Genko (1630–1698) for example, openly questioned the necessity of written acknowledgement from a teacher, which he dismissed as “paper Zen.” The only genuine transmission, he insisted, was the individual’s independent experience of Zen enlightenment, an intuitive experience that needs no external confirmation. What is called Zen enlightenment is not dependent on another’s enlightenment or some external confirmation. An occasional teacher in Japan during the Tokugawa period did not adhere to the lineage system and were what is termed mushi dokugo in Japanese; which means “enlightened without a teacher.” They are often also known as jigo jisho – “self-enlightened and self-certified.” They were generally dismissed and perhaps of necessity leave no independent transmission. Still, they represent a thread that continues to modern American Zen where there are a few teachers such as Cheri Huber who refuse to discuss where or even whether they studied Zen in any traditional way. In any case this is very much a minority position within Zen where a formally and publically acknowledged transmission is normative.

Koan practice

The Zen schools (especially but not exclusively Rinzai) are associatedwith koans (Japanese; Chinese: gongan; Korean: gong’an). Theterm originally referred to legal cases inTang-dynasty China.

In some sense, a koan embodies a realized principle, or law of reality. Koans often appear paradoxical or linguistically meaningless dialogs or questions. The ‘answer’ to the koan involves a transformation of perspective or consciousness, which may be either radical or subtle, possibly akin to the experience of metanoia in Christianity. They are a tool to allow the student to approach enlightenment by essentially ‘short-circuiting’ the logical way we order the world. Through assimilation of a Koan it is possible to ‘jump-start’ an altered mindset that then facilitates enlightenment.

An example of a Zen koan is: “Two hands clap and there isa sound. What is the sound of one hand?” It is sometimes said thatafter diligent practice, the practitioner and the koan become one.Though most Zen groups aim for a “sudden” enlightenment, this usuallycomes only after a great deal of preparation.

For examples of ‘successful’ koan practice resulting in enlightenment experiences, see the anecdotes of Rinzai koan practice recounted in the first book in English to engage Zen as a practice, The Three Pillars of Zen by Philip Kapleau (ISBN 0385260938). For examples of years of futile and fruitless koan practice, see the book AfterZen by Janwillem van de Wetering (ISBN 0312272618). The most important book on the subject in English is probably Isshu Miura and Ruth Fuller Sasaki’s Zen Dust (ASIN B0006BNOZG), sadly long out of print. Fortunately the text, while lacking the extensive footnotes, continues to be available as The Zen Koan: It’s History and Use in Rinzai Zen (ISBN 0156999811). Probably the best relatively brief survey of koan study is the to Victor Sogen Hori’s Zen Sand: The Book of Capping Phrases for Koan Practice (ISBN 0824822846) which can be found on the web. Also of importance, although marred by the ideological perspectives of several of its authors, is the anthology edited by Steven Heine and Dale Wright, The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism.

Zen teachers advise that the problem posed by a koan is to be taken quite seriously, and to be approached quite literally as a matter of life and death. There is a sharp distinction between right and wrong ways of answering a koan — though there may be many “right answers”, practitioners are expectedto demonstrate their understanding of the koan and of Zen with their whole being.

The Zen student’s mastery of a given koan is presented to the teacher in a private session (called in various Japanese schools dokusan, daisan or sanzen). The answer to a koan is more dependent on “how” it is answered. Or, to put it somewhat differently, the answer is a function not merely of a reply, but of a whole modification of the student’s experience; he or she must live the answer to the koan rather than merely offering a correct statement.

It is misleading to suggest there is a single correct answer for any given koan, though there are “correct” and “incorrect” answers, and, indeed, there are compilations of accepted answers to koans to help understand the paradox, and prepare for the interview. These collections are of great value to modern scholarship on the subject.

Following the tradition of “living koans,” a number of western Zen teachers supplement the traditional koan curriculum using various western sources, such as apparently paradoxical sayings from the Bible.

Radical teachings

Some of the traditional Zen fables describe Zen masters using controversial methods of ‘teaching’, which modern Zen enthusiasts may have a tendency to interpret too literally. For example, though Zen and Buddhism deeply respect life and teach non-violence, the founder of the Zen Rinzai school, Linji said: “If you meet the Buddha, kill the Buddha. If you meet a Patriarch, kill the Patriarch.”

A contemporary Zen Master, Seung Sahn, has echoed this teaching in saying that in this life we must all ‘kill’ three things: first we must kill parents; second we must kill Buddha; and last, we must kill the Zen teacher (e.g. Seung Sahn). Of course, kill here is not literally killing. What is meant is to kill one’s attachment to teachers or other external objects. Rather than see concepts outside of themselves, Zen practitioners must integrate these objects with their concepts of self.

When visiting Zen centers, people who began with the stories featuring apparent iconoclastic encounters are often surprised by the conservative and ritualistic nature of the practice. Most Zen centers in the west, like their counterparts in the east, emphasize regular meditation, both on a daily basis and in monthly retreat, as well as a discipline based in practice schedules and everyday household chores such as cooking, cleaning, and gardening as the path of enlightenment.

Zen and Western culture

Since the 1930s in the United Kingdom, and at least since the Beatnik movement of the 1950s in the United States, the West has had a growing interest in Zen. Often, it has been diluted or used as a brand name, leading to criticism of Western appreciation for Buddhism. However, there is some genuine interest as well.

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of koans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Buddhist Sanskrit texts.

Eugen Herrigel’s book Zen and the Art of Archery (ISBN 0375705090), described his training in the Japanese Zen martial art of Kyudo , which inspired many early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars are quick to criticize this book and others listed here as “orientalist,” based on a western perception of Zen, rather than in-depth scholarly study of its origins.

The British-American philosopher Alan Watts had a personal interest in the Zen school of Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it. He was interested in it as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also in the historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that hadfostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into lifestyle experimentation by a small group of mainly west-coast American youths. Besides the narrator, the main character in this novel was Gary Snyder, thinly veiled as “Japhy Ryder” by his friend Kerouac. The story was based on actual events that occurred when Snyder pursued formal Zen studies in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.

Many youths in the Beat generation and among the hippies of the 1960s and 1970s misunderstood the goals and methods of Zen. While the scholar D.T. Suzuki may have brought attention to concepts basic to the Zen tradition — such as humility, labor, service, prayer, gratitude, and meditation — by contrast the “hip” subculture often focused on states of consciousness in themselves. Japanese Zen master Zenkei Shibayama commented: “It may be true that the effect which such scientifically prepared drugs as LSD produce may have some superficial resemblance to some aspects of Zen experience.. When the effect of the drug is gone, the psychological experience one may have had is also weakened and dispersed, and does not endure as a living fact.”

In Tao of Physics, Fritjof Capra explores the parallels between Eastern Mysticism and Modern Physics, and also includes a detailed discussion of Zen and its philosophies

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, byRobert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen per se. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of “quality” from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book. He explains how, despite its title, the book “should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice.”

Many modern students have made the mistake of thinking that since much of Zen, and particularly koans, sound like nonsense (especially in translation and out of context), any clever nonsense is also Zen. Another problematic usage that has emerged in western culture is taking the word “koan” to mean “a particularly thorny problem.” Neither usage is correct. More serious and accurate studies of koan introspection include Muira & Sasaki’s “Zen Koan” and Victor Sogen Hori’s “Zen Dust.”

Over the last fifty years “mainstream” forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia or were trained by such teachers have begun to take root in the west. In North America the largest family of “lineages” is derived from the Japanese Soto school. These include the “White Plum” founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi and the “Ordinary Mind” school founded by Maezumi’s Dharma heir Zen master Joko Beck; as well as the “San Francisco Zen Center” lineage established by Shunryu Suzuki Roshi; and the “Katagiri” lineage established by Suzuki’s sometime associate, Dainin Katagiri Roshi which has a significant presence in the midwest.

A Soto reform school which emphasizes lay practice as well as incorporating a full koan curriculum, the Sanbo Kyodan (or Order of the Three Treasures) is represented in North America by Ruben Habito Roshi, as well as Robert Aitken Roshi’s Diamond Sangha network, the Pacific Zen Institute led by John Tarrant Roshi, and Boundless Way Zen led by James Ishmael Ford, Roshi.

The single largest Zen lineage is the Korean derived “Kwan Um School of Zen” established by Zen Master Seung Sahn. There are also a number of Japanese derived Rinzai centers, most notably the “Rinzaiji” lineage of Kyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi. and the “Dai Bosatsu” lineage established by Eido Shimano Roshi. There are also a few centers based in Chinese Chan, most notable in that it has significant western leadership is the “Dharma Drum” lineage led by Zen Master Sheng Yen.

The Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh has established the Order of Interbeing (Tiếp Hiện), a monastic and lay order based on the principles of Engaged Buddhism. Thich Nhat Hanh is a signficant teacher, and has been one of the teachers of several contemporary Western Zen masters. His community is based in France at Plum Village, the meditation center he founded, but also has branches in America, and affiliated sanghas around the world.

Zen in Films

German director Doris Dorrie’s comedy Enlightenment Guaranteed is about two German brothers, who head to Japan in search of the Zen experience. It’s considered a sequel to one of Dorrie’s biggest hit films, Men.

The Dutch-made My Life is My Message looks at Vietnamese Zen teacher Thich Nhat Hanh as he discusses peace with Israelis and Palestinians staying at his retreat center in France. The movie also examines Hahn’s address to the U.S. Congress in 2003 on the second anniversary of 9/11.

The 1989 film “Why Has Bodhidharma Left for the East?” (Korean title: Dharmaga tongjoguro kan kkadalgun) by Yong-Kyun Bae is essentially a zen fable.

The action-hero character Rambo works in a Buddhist monastery in the 1988 film Rambo III.

American Zen

Two pan-lineage organizations have formed in the last few years. The oldest is the American Zen Teachers Association which includes the majority of Zen teachers in North America and sponsors an annual conference. Soto lineage teachers in North America have also recently formed a Soto Zen Buddhist Association where they are exploring the possibilities of a “western Soto.”

See also

• Zen Teachers
• Dogen
• Hakuin Ekaku
• Huangbo Xiyun
• Karesansui
• Ryokan
• Tathagatagarbha doctrine

Zazen — what it is, why it is practiced, and simple steps to try safely, with common mistakes to avoid.

Zazen is at the heart of Zen Buddhist practice. The aim of Zazen is to still the rational mind. This is done either through koans, Rinzai’s primary method, or simple meditation, the Soto sect’s method. Once the mind is able to rid itself of its many layers, it will then be able to realize its true Buddha nature. In Zen Buddhism, zazen (Japanese: literally “seated meditation”) is a meditative discipline practitioners perform to calm the body and the mind and experience insight into the nature of existence.

During zazen, the hands are folded together into a simple mudraover the belly. In many practices, one breathes from thehara (the center of gravity in the belly)and the eyelids are half-lowered, the eyes being neither fully opennor shut so that the practioner is not distracted by outside objects but at the same time is kept awake. (The latter practice has its origins in a superstitionwhere those who close their eyes during meditation are said to be inthe hungry ghost cave of Black Mountain.)

History and Tradition

Long periods of zazen, usually performed in groups at a zendo (meditation hall), may alternate with periods of kinhin (walking meditation). The beginning of a zazen period is traditionally announced by ringing a bell three times (shijosho), and the end of a round by ringing the bell once (hozensho). Before and after sitting on the zafu, zen practitioners perform a gassho bow to the cushion, to fellow practitioners, and to the teacher.

In Japan, seated zazen is traditionally performed on a mat called a zabuton while sitting on a cushion called a zafu. The common positions used to sit on the zafu are:

• Kekkafuza (full-lotus)
• Hankafuza (half-lotus)
• Burmese (a cross-legged posture in which the ankles are placed together in front of the sitter)
• Seiza (a kneeling posture using a bench or zafu)

In addition, it is not uncommon for modern practitioners to sit zazen in a chair, often with a wedge behind the lower back to help maintain the natural curve of the spine.

Misconceptions about Zazen

To many in the West, zazen is an almost completely unfamiliar practice, which leaves an opportunity for many misconceptions to spring up. One common misconception is that zazen meditation entails the shutting out of all worldly stimuli in order to reach some special, superior state of mind. For example, in the film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, the character Li Mu Bai (李慕白) (played by Chow Yun Fat) describes reaching a frame of mind during meditation which is “pure light”. While the zazen experience is inherently different for each practitioner, and such phenomena are not at all out of the question, such states of mind are not the goal of zazen.

However, to many who practice zazen there is a direct correlation between the cultivation of a focused state of mind and a relaxed body (Johanus Itten, Elements of Color) which is often achieved in martial art activities as well as Chinese, Japanese, and even Western practices of painting and calligraphy, for these are Fine Arts. In these arts the medium is unifying and technique must be “correct” therefore one has to begin with this “zanshin” state of being before executing the work of art, so that the work is executed with an almost certain action. This process takes “endless practice, and many mistakes that have to constantly be corrected in detail.” Meditation to the zen practitioner does not take on a dogmatic theological pantheon of worship, but instead is considered the foundation of a rational and natural inquiry into the reality of nature. Enlightenment is theorized as a focused state of mind and a relaxed body that allows one to approximate certainty about the reality of nature. The arts in these cultures were often used as a way for perfecting this discipline, but were not meant to inflate the ego as a desire for greatness in the particular field that such practices occurred. Instead, it seems that they would use the practices to further their ability to meditate and reach a certain truth about nature. It is important to note that Zazen holds meditation as foundational and self evident and this has an interesting correlation to Western philosophy’s a priori Rationalism, which stemmed from René Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy. It is a particularly interesting position in human culture, but it does not necessarily resolve the problem of mind and solipsism in philosophy, however the practice is a cogent one and not to be misunderstood. Like western philosophy, it is a critical discipline.

See also

• Keisaku
• Rinzai school
• Shikantaza
• Soto

Further reading

• Humphreys, Christmas. (1991) “Concentration and Meditation: A Manual of Mind Development”. Element Books. ISBN 1852300086
• John Daishin Buksbazen, Peter Matthiessen (Foreword). (2002) Zen Meditation in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86-171316-8.
• Austin, James H. (1998) Zen and the brain: toward an understanding of meditation and consciousness The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01164-6

Yungang Grottoes — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

The Yungang Grottoes (云冈石窟 yúngāng shíkū), near Datong city in Shanxi province, China are one of the three famous ancient sculptural sites of China. The others are Longmen and Mogao.

The sites contains 252 caves and 51,000 statues, they represents one of the earliest peak of Buddhist cave art in China from the 5th and 6th centuries.

The Yungang Grottoes were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001.

Yuanfen — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

Yuan (缘) or Yuanfen (缘份; pinyin: yuan2 fen4) is a Buddhist-related Chinese concept that means the predetermined principle that dictates a person’s relationships and encounters, usually positive, such as the affinity among friends or lovers. In common usage the term can be defined as the “binding force” that links two persons together in any relationship. The concept of synchronicity from the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung can be seen as similar to yuanfen, which Chinese people also believe to be a universal force governing the happening of things to some people at some places. Yuanfen belongs to the family of concepts known in theology as determinism.

Some believe that the driving forces and causes behind yuanfen are the actions done in the previous reincarnations. This aspect is therefore similar to karma of Buddhism. However, while karma often refers to the consequences of an individual’s actions on him- or herself, “yuan” is always used in conjunction with two persons.

Unlike other Chinese social relations, which describe abstract, but easily noticeable, connections between people, nowadays, Chinese merely use this word poetically or to emphasize a meant-to-be relationship, and almost never in a serious business or legal situation.

Usage

• When one meets a person (of either gender) who is hard to find, one can exclaim: “It is yuanfen that has brought us together!”
• When one encounters another repeatedly in various locations that it seems to be beyond coincidence, one can refer to yuanfen.
• On the contrary, when two persons who know each other (maybe as penpals) but never get a chance to meet face-to-face, it can be said that their yuanfen is too superficial or thin.

The Mandarin proverb: 百世修来同船渡，千载修得共枕眠 (pinyin: bai3 shi4 xiu1 lai2 tong2 chuan2 du4, qian1 zai4 xiu1 de2 gong4 zheng3 mian2)

• Literally: It takes hundreds of reincarnations to bring two persons to ride on the same boat; it takes a thousand eons to bring two persons to share the same pillow.

Translations

Often yuanfen is said to be the equivalent of “fate” (as is with the title of a 1984 movie starring Leslie Cheung) or “destiny”. However, these words do not have the element of the past playing a role in deciding the outcome of the uncertain future. The most common Chinese term for “fate” or “destiny” is mingyun (命運 ming4 yun4), literally “the turn of events in life”.

“Providence” and “predestination” are also not exact translations, because these words imply that the things happen by the will of God or gods, whereas yuanfen does not necessarily involve divine intervention.

Yonten Gyatso — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

Yonten Gyatso was the 4th Dalai Lama, (1589 – 1616). As a descendant of the people of Mongolia, he was the only non-Tibetan to be recognized as Dalai Lama (although the 6th Dalai Lama was a Monpa), and that after extended debate among his contemporaries. He was a contempory and student of the First Panchen Lama Lobsang Chokyi Gyeltsen.

Yonghegong — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

The Yonghe Temple (雍和宮), also known as the “Palace of Peace and Harmony Lama Temple”, the “Yonghe Lamasery”, or – popularly – the “Lama Temple” is a temple and monastery of the Geluk School of Tibetan Buddhism located in the northeastern part of Beijing, China. It is one of the largest and most important Tibetan Buddhist monasteries in the world. The building and the artworks of the temple combine Han Chinese and Tibetan styles.

History

Building work on the Yonghegong Temple started in 1694 during the Qing Dynasty. It originally served as an official residence for court eunuchs. It was then converted into the court of the Prince Yongzheng (Yin Zhen), a son of the Kangxi Emperor and himself the future Yongzheng Emperor. After Yongzheng’s ascension to the throne in 1722, half of the building was converted into a lamasery, a monastery for monks of Tibetan Buddhism. The other half remained an imperial palace.

After Yongzheng’s death in 1735, his coffin was placed in the temple. The Qianlong Emperor, Yongzheng’s successor, gave the temple imperial status signified by having its turquoise tiles replaced with yellow tiles which were reserved for the emperor. Subsequently, the monastery became a residence for large numbers of Tibetan Buddhist monks from Mongolia and Tibet, and so the Yonghe Lamasery became the national centre of Lama administration.

The temple is said to have survived the Cultural Revolution due to the intervention of Prime Minister Zhou Enlai. It was reopened to the public in 1981.

Architecture and artworks

The Yonghe Temple is arranged along a north-south central axis, which has a length of 480m. The main gate is at the southern end of this axis. Along the axis, there are five main halls which are separated by courtyards: the Hall of the Heavenly Kings (Tian Wang Dian or Devaraja Hall), the Hall of Harmony and Peace (Yonghegong), the Hall of Everlasting Protection (Yongyoudian), the Hall of the Wheel of the Law (Falundian), and the Pavilion of Ten Thousand Happinesses (Wanfuge).

The Hall of the Heavenly Kings is the southernmost of the main halls, it served originally as the main entrance to the monastery. In the center of the hall stands a statue of the Maitreya Buddha, along the walls statues of the four Heavenly Kings are arranged.

The Hall of Harmony and Peace is the main building of the temple. It houses three bronze statues of the Buddhas of the Three Ages, the statue of the Gautama Buddha (Buddha of the Present) is in the center, it is flanked by the statue of Kasyapa Matanga (Buddha of the Past, right) and the Maitreya Buddha (Buddha of the Future, left). Along the sides of the hall, the statues of the 18 Arhats are placed. A mural in the hall shows the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.

The Hall of Everlasting Protection was Emperor Yongzheng’s living quarters as a prince and the place where his coffin was placed after his death. Today, a statue of the Bhaisajya-guru (healing Buddha) stands in this hall.

The Hall of the Wheel of the Law functions as a place for reading scriptures and conducting religious ceremonies. It contains a large statue of Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Geluk School. The hall also contains the Five-Hundred-Arhat-Hill, a carving make of red sandalwood with statues of the arhats made from five different metals (gold, silver, copper, iron, and tin).

The Pavilion of Ten Thousand Happinesses contains an 18m tall statue of the Maitreya Buddha carved from a single piece of White Sandalwood. The statue is one of three artworks in the Temple which were included in the Guinness Book of Records in 1993.

Location

The Yonghe Temple is located in the Dongcheng District of Beijing, near the northeastern corner of the Second Ring Road. The postal address is: 12 Yonghegong Dajie, Beixinqiao, Dongcheng District, Beijing.

Yogacara — core ideas and practices, how it differs from other schools, and where it fits in Buddhist history.

Yogācāra (Sanskrit: “yoga practice”), also spelled yogāchāra, is an influential school of philosophy and psychology that developed in Indian Mahayana Buddhism starting sometime in the fourth to fifth centuries C.E., also commonly known as Consciousness-only (Sanskrit: Cittamātra).

Sometimes referred to as the Knowledge Way or Vijnanavada, Yogācāra has also been called Subjective Realism, acknowledging that individual factors including karma contribute to an experience of reality that must be different for every being. It mentions the idea of “Buddha nature.”

The Yogācāra texts were composed in the period of Buddhism known to practitioners as The Third Turning of the Wheel. The Yogācāra studies texts form a survey of all of The Three Turnings of the Wheel. Originating around a set of scriptures and treatises composed by such early Indian masters as the brothers Vasubandhu and Asanga (who was said to be inspired by the legendary Maitreya-natha), this school held a prominent position in the Indian scholastic tradition for several centuries. It was also transmitted to Tibet by Dharmakirti who intiated Atisha into the Yogachara lineage, where its teachings became an integral part of much of Tibetan Buddhism up to modern times, and to East Asia, where it was studied with intensity for several centuries.

Notably, this school was in opposition to the Madhyamaka (Sanskrit: “Middle Way”) school of Buddhism. While the Madhyamaka school asserted that there is no ultimately real thing, the Yogācāra school asserts that only the mind is ultimately existent. This debate still rages in Tibet as the Shentong (empty of other) versus Rangtong (empty of self). Yogacara teachings are especially important in Tantric Buddhism, or the secret practices of Buddhism. It is often said that many Tibetan students learn the Madhyamaka school until they have mastered it, and when they are ready switch to the Yogācāra school.

Yogācāra, like all Indian schools of Buddhism, eventually became virtually extinct within its mother country. However, all four of the major schools of Buddhism did heavily influence the schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Yogācāra is most prevalent in the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, the teachings of Yogācāra became the Chinese Fa Xiang school of Buddhism.

The Yogacara defined three basic modes by which we perceive our world: one, through attached and erroneous discrimination, wherein things are incorrectly apprehended based on preconceptions; two, through the correct understanding of the dependently originated nature of things; and three, by apprehending things as they are in themselves, uninfluenced by any conceptualization at all. These are referred to in Yogācāra as the three natures of perception. Also, regarding perception, the Yogacara emphasized that our everyday understanding of the existence of external objects is problematic, since in order to perceive any object (and thus, for all practical purposes for the object to “exist”), there must be a sensory organ as well as a correlative type of consciousness to allow the process of cognition to occur.

Perhaps the best known teaching of the Yogācāra system is that of theeight layers of consciousness. This theory of the consciousnesses attempted to explain all the phenomena of cyclic existence, including how rebirth occurs and precisely how karma functions on an individual basis. For example, if I carry out a good or evil act, why and how is it that the effects of that act do not appear immediately? If they do not appear immediately, where is this karma waiting for its opportunity to play out?

The answer given by the Yogacaras was the store consciousness (alsoknown as the base, or eighth consciousness; Sanskrit: ālayavijñāna) which simultaneously acts as a storage place for karma and as a fertile matrix that brings karma to a state of fruition. The likeness of this process to the cultivation of plants led to the creation of the metaphor of seeds (Sanskrit, bijas) to explain the way karma is stored in the eighth consciousness. The type, quantity, quality and strength of the seeds determine where and how a sentient being will be reborn: one’s species,sex, social status, proclivities, bodily appearance and so forth.

On the other hand, the karmic energies created in the current lifetimethrough repeated patterns of behavior are called habit energies (Sanskrit:vasanas). All the activities that mold our minds and bodies, for betteror worse–eating, drinking, talking, studying, practicing the piano orwhatever–can be understood to create habit energies. And of course, myhabit energies can penetrate the consciousnesses of others, and viceversa–what we call “influence” in everyday language. Habit energies canbecome seeds, and seeds can produce new habit energies.

There are two important aspects of the Yogācāra schemata that are ofspecial interest to modern-day practitioners. One is that virtually allschools of Mahayana Buddhism came to rely on these Yogācāra explanations as they created their own doctrinal systems–even the Zen schools. For example, the important Yogācāra explanation of the pervasiveness of one’s delusions through “mind-only” had an obvious influence on Zen.

That Yogācāra is not yet that well known among the community of Western practitioners is probably attributable to the fact that most of theinitial transmission of Buddhism to the West has been directly concernedwith more practice-oriented forms of Buddhism, such as Zen, Vipassana,and Pure Land. Also, it is a complicated system, and there are still notreally any good, accessible, introductory books on the topic in Westernlanguages. However, within Tibetan Buddhism more and more Western students are becoming acquainted with this school.

Yoga — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

Yoga is a family of ancient spiritual practices that originated in India, where it remains a vibrant living tradition and is seen as a means to enlightenment. Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, and Raja Yoga are considered the four main yogas, but there are many other types. In other parts of the world where yoga is popular, notably the United States, yoga has become associated with the asanas (postures) of Hatha Yoga, which are popular as fitness exercises. Yoga as a means to enlightenment is central to Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and has influenced other religious and spiritual practices throughout the world. Important Hindu texts establishing the basis for yoga include the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.

Yoga practice and intention

Modern yoga practice often includes traditional elements inherited from Hinduism, such as moral and ethical principles, postures designed to keep the body fit, spiritual philosophy, instruction by a guru, chanting of mantras (sacred syllables), quietening the breath, and stilling the mind through meditation. These elements are sometimes adapted to meet the needs of non-Hindu practitioners.

Proponents of yoga see daily practice as beneficial in itself, leading to improved health, emotional well-being, mental clarity, and joy in living. (Some skeptics question these claims.) Yoga adepts progress toward the experience of samadhi, an advanced state of meditation where there is absorption in inner ecstasy.

The goals of yoga are expressed differently in different traditions. In theistic Hinduism, yoga may be seen as a set of practices intended to bring people closer to God – to help them achieve union with God. In Buddhism, which does not postulate a creator-type God, yoga may help people deepen their wisdom, compassion, and insight. In Western nations, where there is a strong emphasis on individualism, yoga practice may be an extension of the search for meaning in self, and integration of the different aspects of being. The terms Self-Realization and God-Realization are used interchangeably in Hindu yoga, with the underlying belief that the true nature of self, revealed through the practice of yoga, is of the same nature as God.

The ultimate goal of yoga is the attainment of liberation (Moksha) from worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara). Yoga entails mastery over the body, mind, and emotional self, and transcendence of desire. It is said to lead gradually to knowledge of the true nature of reality. The Yogi reaches an enlightened state where there is a cessation of thought and an experience of blissful union. This union may be of the individual soul (Atman) with the supreme Reality (Brahman), as in Vedanta philosophy; or with a specific god or goddess, as in theistic forms of Hinduism and some forms of Buddhism. Enlightenment may also be described as extinction of the limited ego, and direct and lasting perception of the non-dual nature of the universe.

For the average person still far from enlightenment, yoga can be a way of increasing one’s love for God, or cultivating compassion and insight. While the history of yoga strongly connects it with Hinduism, proponents claim that yoga is not a religion itself, but contains practical steps which can benefit people of all religions, as well as those who do not consider themselves religious.

The word “yoga”

The word “yoga” &ndash derives from the Sanskrit root yuj (“to yoke”); which is considered cognate to modern English “yoke”. Both derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *yeug- meaning “to join” or “unite” .

It is generally translated as “union of the individual atma (loosely translated to mean soul) with Paramatma, the universal soul.” This may be understood as union with the Divine by integration of body, mind, and spirit. Thus, in essence, one who attempts yoga may loosely be referred to as a yogi or in Sanskrit, a yogin (masculine) or yogini (feminine). These designations are actually intended for advanced practitioners , who have already made considerable progress along the path, towards yoga.(Ajit,2005)

Diversity of yoga

Over the long history of yoga, different schools have emerged, and there are numerous examples of subdivisions and synthesis. It is common to speak of each form of yoga as a “path” to enlightenment. Thus, yoga may include love and devotion (as in Bhakti Yoga), selfless work (as in Karma Yoga), knowledge and discernment (as in Jnana Yoga), or an eight-limbed system of disciplines emphasizing meditation (as in Raja Yoga). These practices occupy a continuum from the religious to the scientific. They need not be mutually exclusive. (A person who follows the path of selfless work might also cultivate some knowledge and devotion.) Some people (particularly in Western cultures) pursue yoga as exercise divorced from spiritual practice.

Other types of yoga include Mantra Yoga, Kundalini Yoga,Iyengar Yoga, Kriya Yoga, Integral Yoga, Nitya Yoga, Maha Yoga, Purna Yoga, Anahata Yoga, Tantra Yoga, Tibetan Yoga, etc. It is often helpful to check the teacher and lineage to be sure how these terms are being used. Another name for Raja Yoga (“royal yoga”) is Ashtanga Yoga (“eight-limbed yoga”), but this should not be confused with the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga developed by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, which is a specific style of Hatha Yoga practice.

Yoga and religion

In the Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain traditions, the spiritual goals of yoga are seen as inseparable from the religions of which yoga forms a part. Some yogis make a subtle distinction between religion and yoga, seeing religion as more concerned with culture, values, beliefs and rituals; and yoga as more concerned with Self-Realization, i.e., direct perception of the ultimate truth. In this sense, religion and yoga are complementary. Sri Ramakrishna likened religion to the husk, and direct experience to the kernel. Both are needed, “but if one wants to get at the kernel itself, he must remove the husk of the grain.”

Some forms of yoga come replete with a rich iconography, while others are more austere and minimalist. Hindu practitioners of yoga are proud of their religious traditions, while non-Hindu practitioners claim that yoga may be practiced sincerely by those who have not accepted the Hindu religion.

While the yoga tradition remains rooted in India, the fact that some modern yogis like Swami Vivekananda and Paramahansa Yogananda came to the West suggests that they saw hope the yoga tradition could also flourish there. Critics of yoga as practiced in the West charge that it is sometimes watered down, corrupted, or cut off from its spiritual roots (e.g. the popular view that yoga is primarily physical exercises).

If yoga is one of India’s great gifts to the world, the widespread acceptance of that gift – with the concomitant diversity – is sometimes incomprehensible to traditional Hindu practitioners of yoga. Yet the sheer number of people practicing yoga outside India suggests the need to define yoga both by its historical roots and its modern adaptations.

Common themes

Common to most forms of yoga is the practice of concentration (dharana) and meditation (dhyana). Dharana, according to Patanjali’s definition, is the “binding of consciousness to a single point.” The awareness is concentrated on a fine point of sensation (such as that of the breath entering and leaving the nostrils). Sustained single-pointed concentration gradually leads to meditation (dhyana), in which the inner faculties are able to expand and merge with something vast. Meditators sometimes report feelings of peace, joy, and oneness.

The focus of meditation may differ from school to school, e.g. meditation on one of the chakras, such as the heart center (anahata) or the third eye (ajna); or meditation on a particular deity, such as Krishna; or on a quality like peace. Non-dualist schools such as Advaita Vedanta may stress meditation on the Supreme with no form or qualities (Nirguna Brahman). This resembles Buddhist meditation on the Void.

Another common element is the spiritual teacher (guru in Sanskrit; lama in Tibetan). While emphasized to varying degrees by all schools of yoga, in some the guru is seen as an embodiment of the Divine. The guru guides the student (shishya or chela) through yogic discipline from the beginning. Thus, the novice yoga student is to find and devote himself to a satguru (true teacher). Traditionally, knowledge of yoga–as well as permission to practice it or teach it–has been passed down through initiatory chains of gurus and their students. This is called guruparampara.

The yoga tradition is one of practical experience, but also incorporates texts which explain the techniques and philosophy of yoga. Many gurus write on the subject, either providing modern translations and elucidations of classical texts, or explaining how their particular teachings should be followed. A guru may also found an ashram or order of monks; these comprise the institutions of yoga. The yoga tradition has also been a fertile source of inspiration for poetry, music, dance, and art.

When students associate with a particular teacher, school, ashram or order, this naturally creates yoga communities where there are shared practices. Chanting of mantras such as Aum, singing of spiritual songs, and studying sacred texts are all common themes. The importance of any one element may differ from school to school, or student to student. Differences do not always reflect disagreement, but rather a multitude of approaches meant to serve students of differing needs, background and temperament.

The yogi is sometimes portrayed as going beyond rules-based morality. This does not mean that a yogi will act in an immoral fashion, but rather that he or she will act with direct knowledge of the supreme Reality. In some legends, a yogi–having amassed merit through spiritual practice–may then cause mischief even to the gods. Some yogis in history have been naked ascetics–such as Swami Trailanga, who greatly vexed the occupying British in 19th century Benares by wandering about in a state of innocence.

Origins

Main article: History of Yoga

Images of a meditating yogi from the Indus Valley Civilization are thought to be 6 to 7 thousand years old. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BC. It is difficult to establish the date of yoga from this as the Rig Veda was orally transmitted for at least a millennium. The first Yoga text dates to around the 2nd century BC by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to “eight limbs” (the sum of which constitute “Ashtanga Yoga”) to quiet one’s mind and merge with the infinite.

The first full description of the principles and goals of yoga are found in the Upanisads, thought to have been composed between the eighth and fourth centuries BC. The Upanisads are also called Vedanta since they constitute the end or conclusion of the Vedas (the traditional body of spiritual wisdom). In the Upanisads, the older practises of offering sacrifices and ceremonies to appease external gods gives way instead to a new understanding that man can, by means of an inner sacrifice, become one with the Supreme Being (referred to as Brāhman or Māhātman) — through moral culture, restraint and training of the mind.

Hindu yoga

Bhagavad Gita

Main article: Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita famously distinguishes several types of “yoga”, corresponding to the duties of different nature of people. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their philosophies, it constantly refers to itself as such, the “Scripture of Yoga” (see the final verses of each chapter). The book is thought to have been written some time between the 5th and the 2nd century BC. In it, Krishna describes the following yogas:

(1) Karma yoga, the yoga of “action” in the world.

(2) Jnana yoga, the yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor.

(3) Bhakti yoga, the yoga of devotion to a deity (for example, to Krishna).

Patanjali

Main articles: Patanjali and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Perhaps the classic description of yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which form the basis not only of the darshana called “yoga”–one of six such “orthodox” (i.e. Veda-accepting) schools of Hindu philosophy–but also of the practice of yoga in most ashrams (to the extent these can be distinguished). The school (dharshana) of Indian philosophy known as “yoga” is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence from Buddhism. The Yoga philosophy fully believes in the epistemology of the Samkhya school, as well as its concept of the individual spirits (Purusha) and the Nature (Prakriti)—but differs from Samkhya’s atheism.

Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras presents the goal of yoga as ‘the cessation of mental fluctuations’ (cittavrtti nirodha), an achievement which gives rise to the possibility of stable meditation and thus deeper states of absorption (dhyana or samadhi). This requires considerable restraint (yama) and self-discipline (niyama; see below for Patanjali’s eight limbs of yoga)). Patanjali’s yoga is sometimes called Raja Yoga (Skt: “Royal yoga”) or “Ashtanga Yoga” (“Eight-Limbed Yoga”), in order to distinguish it from Hatha yoga. It is held as authoritative by all schools. Patanjali is also known for writing commentaries (Mahabhashya) on the Sutras of the great Sanskrit grammarian Panini. In fact, Panini, Patanjali and Kātyāyana are regarded are the highest authority not only in Sanskrit but also in the whole of Linguistics.

Patanjali’s text sets forth eight “limbs” of yoga practice. Interestingly, only one of them involves physical postures (and these mainly involve seated positions). The eight are:

(1) Yama (The five “abstentions”): violence, lying, theft, (illicit-) sex, and possessions

(2) Niyama (The five “observances”): purity, contentment, austerities, study, and surrender to God

(3) Asana: This term literally means “seat,” and originally referred mainly to seated positions. With the rise of Hatha yoga, it came to be used of these yoga “postures” as well.

(4) Pranayama: Control of prāna or vital breath

(5) Pratyahara (“Abstraction”): “that by which the senses do not come into contact with their objects and, as it were, follow the nature of the mind.” — Vyasa

(6) Dharana (“Concentration”): Fixing the attention on a single object

(7) Dhyana (“Meditation”)

(8) Samadhi: Super-conscious state or trance (state of liberation)

God in Yoga philosophy

The philosophy of Yoga also presented certain arguments for the existence of God (Ishvara, lit., the Supreme Lord):

• The Vedas are regarded as evidence. The Vedas and their commentaries, the Upanishads mention and describe God—hence God exists.
• Continuity: people and things have various degrees of differences among themselves. Some people are foolish, some are wise. Hence there ought to be some Being who has the highest level of knowledge among all—who is omniscient. That Being is God.
• Cosmic Evolution, leading to this universe, occurs because of the contact between Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (Nature). Purusha is static, and Prakriti is unconscious. Hence there can be no contact between these two things of opposite characteristics, unless God—the omniscient Being—brings about this contact.
• Meditation upon God is regarded as the best means of attaining Liberation. If meditation on such a Being helps in liberation, and all obstacles are removed, then the object of the meditation must have a real existence.

Ishvara is regarded as a special Purusha, who is beyond sorrow and Karma laws. He is one, perfect, infinite, omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent and eternal. He is beyond the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. He is different from an ordinary liberated spirit, because the latter were bound once, whereas Ishvara was never bound. He is kind and merciful. He is the father of the demigods (the various Devas) and of the sages (rishis), as well as their guru; He is the author of the Vedas.

Yoga system is perhaps the first philosophy in the world to give arguments for monotheism. Yoga says that Ishvara can be only one and unique. If many Gods are assumed:

• Let’s say if they are two Gods. If God #1 gives a certain quality (say white color) to a thing and God #2 gives another (say black color) to the same thing, this would be mutually contradictory. On the other hand, if God #1’s choice reigns supreme, God #2 would fail to remain as God.
• Let’s say that the Gods work in as a committee to do certain tasks one by one. Then while one God is doing his work, the existence of the other Gods would be superfluous and unnecessary.

Hatha yoga

Main article: Hatha yoga

Over the last century the term yoga has come to be especially associated with the postures (Sanskrit āsanas) of hatha yoga (“Forced Yoga”). Hatha yoga has gained wide popularity outside of India and traditional yoga-practicing religions, and the postures are sometimes presented as entirely secular or non-spiritual in nature.

Traditional Hatha Yoga is a complete yogic path, including moral disciplines, physical exercises (e.g., postures and breath control), and meditation, and encompasses far more than the yoga of postures and exercises practiced in the West as physical culture. The seminal work on Hatha Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Svatmarama.

Hatha Yoga was invented to provide a form of physical purification and training that would prepare aspirants for the higher training that is called Raja Yoga (see above). This is still true today. Despite this, many in the West practice ‘Hatha yoga’ solely for the perceived health benefits it provides, and not as a path to enlightenment.

Natya yoga

Main article: Natya Yoga

The guide to Natya (Dance) Yoga was written by Bharata Muni. Sage Narada along with Gandharvas were the first to practise Natya Yoga, which comprise all the four main yoga’s. Natya Yoga was practised by the medieval devadasis, and is currently taught in a few orthodox schools of Bharatanatyam and Odissi.

Buddhist yoga

Within the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism yoga likewise holds a central place, though not in the form presented by Patanjali or the Gita. (For example, physical postures are rarely practiced.) An example would be “guru yoga,” the union with the mind of the spiritual teacher which must be done at the beginning of the spiritual path and regularly throughout. In the tantric traditions a number of practices are classified with the name “yoga”, for example, the two of the four general classification of tantras–“Yoga Tantra” and “Highest Yoga Tantra”.

A system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm timing in movement exercises is known as Thrul-Khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies. The body postures of tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama’s summer temple of Lukhang.

As the whole buddhist lineage transmission of Kagyu school came to Tibet over the Indian Yogis Naropa, Tilopa, Marpa then Milarepa, Gampopa, authentic old buddhist yogic practices have been passed over to students still following these instructions throughout many Kagyu Monasteries and institutes worldwide.

Yogacara (“Yoga Adepts”), which is also known as Cittamatra (“Consciousness Only”) is an important philosophical school within Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.

Yoga and tantra

Main article: Tantra

Yoga is often mentioned in company with Tantra. While the two have deep similarities, most traditions distinguish them from one another.

They are similar in that both amount to families of spiritual texts, practices, and lineages with origins in the Indian subcontinent. (Coincidentally, both have been popularized to some extent in the West, with perhaps a shallower understanding of their nature). It should be noted however that for the most part, we are speaking of different families of texts, lineages, etc.

Their differences are variously expressed. Some Hindu commentators see yoga as a process whereby body consciousness is seen as the root cause of bondage, while tantra views the body as a means to understanding, rather than as an obstruction. It must be said that in India, tantra often carries quite negative connotations involving sexual misbehavior and black magic. Nevertheless, most forms of tantra follow more mainstream social mores. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika is generally classified as a Hindu tantric scripture.

Tantra has roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a theistic basis. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Hindu tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva (the passive, masculine force of Lord Shiva) and Shakti (the active, creative feminine force of his consort, variously known as Ma Kali, Durga, Shakti, Parvati and others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled ‘snake’ of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti (also known as samadhi) is achieved. (Some Hindu yoga teachers, however, have adopted these concepts.)

Tantra emphasises mantra (Sanskrit prayers, often to gods, that are repeated), yantra (complex symbols representing gods in various forms through intricate geometric figures), and rituals that range from simple murti (statue representations of deities) or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While tantric texts (see kaularvatantra, mahanirvana tantra) and teachers (e.g. Abhinava Gupta) may seem odd and highly arcane from the point of view of classical yoga, that these incorporate yoga concepts seems clear.

In Tibetan Buddhism, which embraces both, yoga is seen as a synonym for “spiritual practice,” while “tantra” refers to a specific category of texts and practices, etc that are roughly analogous to the Hindu ones described above. (The fact that Hindu “yoga” has these things as well may have escaped the attention of classical Tibetan commentators.) In that spirit other Buddhist traditions, such as Theravada, practice a form of “yoga” but reject “tantra.”

Notable Yogis

Main articles: Yogi and List of yoga schools

Many dedicated individuals have influenced the practice of yoga, and spread awareness of yoga throughout the world.

Centuries ago, such individuals included Meera from the Bhakti tradition, Shankaracharya from the Jnana Yoga tradition, Patanjali, who formalized the system of Raja Yoga, are just a few examples.

In the late 1800s, Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, a Bhakti Yogi, brought about a rebirth of yoga in India. A devotee of Mother Kali and a teacher of Advaita Vedanta, he preached that “all religions lead to the same goal.”

The noted Indian author Sri Aurobindo translated and interpreted Yogic scriptures, such as the Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita. His epic poem Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, among the longest poems ever written in English. He also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, which continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is Aurobindo’s synthesis of the four main Yogas (Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Raja).

Other Indian yogis who inspired their countrymen include Swami Rama Tirtha, and Swami Sivananda who authored over 300 books on yoga and spirituality. Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who wrote best-selling autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences.

During the early twentieth century, many yogis travelled to the west to spread knowledge of Yoga.

Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna’s disciple, is known for introducing Yoga to many in the west.

Paramahansa Yogananda (1893-1952), a practitioner of Kriya Yoga, taught Yoga as the binding force that reconciled Hinduism and Christianity. Yogananda founded the Self-Realization Fellowship in Los Angeles, in 1925. His book Autobiography of a Yogi continues to be one of the best-selling books on yoga.

A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada popularised Bhakti for Krishna in many countries through his movement, the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, (popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement) which he founded in 1966. His followers, known for enthusiastic chanting in public places, brought Bhakti Yoga to the attention of many westerners.

In the 1955, the socio-spritual organisation Ananda Marga (the path of bliss) was founded by P.R. Sarkar also known as Shrii Shrii Anandamurti. Based on tantric yoga, his teaching emphasises social service in the context of a political, economic and cultural theory; or “self-realization and service to all.”

Also during this period, many yogis brought greater awareness of Hatha yoga to the west. Some of these individuals include students of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught at Mysore Palace from 1924 until his death in 1989; these students include Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya’s son T.K.V. Desikachar.

About the same time, the Beatles interest in Transcendental Meditation served to make a celebrity of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

Notable Contemporary Yogis

Sri Chinmoy influenced by Aurobindo, brought a similar synthesis of elements to the West emphasizing love for God, meditation on the heart, and religious tolerance rooted in modern Vedantic principles.

Swami Maheshwarananda is the author of the scientific master-system Yoga in Daily Life and founder of the International Sri Deep Madhavananda Ashram Fellowship. He has been living in Vienna, Austria since 1972.

Swami Satyananda Saraswati, founder of Satyananda Yoga.

See also

• Anahata Yoga
• Bikram Yoga
• Chakra
• Hindu Philosophy
• Hinduism
• Hindu idealism
• Iyengar Yoga
• Kundalini
• List of Hatha Yoga Postures
• Master Yoga
• Naked yoga
• Prana
• Raja Yoga
• Sahaja Yoga
• Self-realization
• Seven stages
• Surat Shabda Yoga
• Tsa lung Trul khor
• Tummo
• Yoga as exercise
• Yoga piracy
• Yoga (alternative medicine)

References

• Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
• Feuerstein, Georg. The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications 1996.
• Mittra, Dharma Sri. Asanas: 608 Yoga Poses. 1st ed. California: New World Library 2003.
• Usharabudh, Arya Pandit. Philosophy of Hatha Yoga. 2nd ed. Pennsylvania: Himalayan Institute Press 1977, 1985.

Indian philosophy

Topics in Yoga

Topics in Hinduism

Yinyuan Longqi — overview of meaning, background and key points, with links to related topics for context.

Yinyuan Longqi (Chinese 隱元隆琦; pinyin yin yuan long qi; Japanese Ingen Ryuki) (Fuqing, Fujian, 1592 – Uji, 1673) was a Chinese Linji Chan Buddhist monk, poet, and calligrapher.

Ingen’s father disappeared when he was five. At age 20, while searching for him, Ingen arrived at Mount Putuo off Zhejiang province, where he served tea to monks. At 28, after the death of his mother, he was ordained as a monk at his family temple – Wanfu Temple, Mount Huangbo, Fujian. Ingen’s teachers there were Miyun Yuanwu and Feiyin Tongrong. In 1633 he received dharma transmission from the latter, and in 1637 served his first term as abbot. His second term as 33rd abbot of the temple began in 1646 and at this time he is credited with helping Mount Huangbo to develop in to a thriving Buddhist centre. In 1654, after repeated requests of Itsunen Shoyu he went to Nagasaki, Japan with around 30 monks and artisans, including his disciple Muyan, and founded the Ōbaku sect, establishing its head temple Mampuku-ji at Uji in 1661.

Yinyuan Longqi was also a skilled calligrapher. Along with his disciples Mokuan Shoto and Sokuhi Nyoitsu, he was one of the Obaku no Sanpitsu (“Three Brushes of Ōbaku”). He is known to have carried paintings by Chen Xian with him to Japan.